Chapter: COLD WAR [International Relations] 3rd Year B.A. Political Science
NOTES
REVISE ONE CHAPTER IN ONE HOUR
Chapter : Cold War and Post
Cold War Era
1. Youtube video part I: https://youtu.be/PuUWZ7v1oK4
Youtube video part II: https://youtu.be/h8NWt5YiFhM
In Introduction
to Cold War
2. Meaning
and Nature of Cold War
Opinions
regarding origin of Cold War (when cold war started?) :
3. Rise
of Authoritarianism
4. Bolshevik
Revolution
5. Atomic
Supremacy
Causes
of Cold War
6. The
USSR Responsibility
7. The
USA Responsibility
8. Implication
of Cold War
The
Evolution of Cold War
9. Cautious
Friendship and Breaking Alliance, 1945-46
10. Apparent
Conflict, Actual Adjustment, 1953-62.
11. Thaw
in Cold War, 1963-68
12. Detente,
1969-1978
13. New
Cold War, 1979-1987
14. Afghanistan
Crisis–
15. Détente
II
16. The
End of Cold War, 1989-90
Other
Center of Power.
17. The
European Union (EU)
18. Russia
19. Japan
20. Germany
Introduction:
·
After Second World War, a new international
system emerged.
·
It was characterized by
domination of two super powers they are United States and Soviet Union (USSR).
·
These two super powers divided
the world into two blocks. East and West.
·
East
consisted of Communist nations in general, specially Soviet Union and it is
political and military allies in Eastern Europe. (with ideology of socialism where private ownership of property
business etc was prohibited. State own all the properties and equal
distribution of wealth among all citizens)
·
West
consisted of non-communist nations such as Advanced industrial societies of
Western Europe, Japan, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. This faction was lead
by Unites States. (with ideology of capitalism where private ownership
of property, trade were allowed in the state).
·
The division of World into
rival blocs (i.e. East and West) refereed to as Bipolar World in International
Relations terminology.
·
This bipolarization had lead
to a situation of Cold War.
·
The very formation of two
factions (groups) has given rise to war tensions and this situation was named
as COLD WAR.
Meaning and Nature
Ø Meaning of Cold War:
o
In International Relations,
Cold war indicates the states of constant conflict, suspicion, mistrust and
hostility maintained and perpetuated without a direct armed confrontation
between factions;.
Ø Nature:
o
Cold war is not an armed war
(not actual war)
o
In cold war, rivals keep their
peace-time diplomatic relations intact but continue their hostility;
o
It is fought by means of political
propaganda, which is called ‘Propaganda war’;
o
Cold war even though is not an
actual war but the danger of war is always imminent or in the near future.
Ø Meaning of Cold war and actual
scenario:
o
Cold war is called a diplomatic struggle between the two
super powers after the Second World War. It is the existence of tense atmosphere of division, distrust
and suspicion between two super powers i.e. United Nations and Soviet Union
(USSR).
o
Relations between the United
States and the Soviet Union (USSR) were strained and hostile even prior to the
beginning of World War II yet they characterized as cold war around 1947. The
term ‘cold war’ was first coined by Bernard Baruch, Carolina on 16th April, 1947, when
United Nation’s foreign policy named “Truman Doctrine” declared and said “ Let us not be deceived-today we are
in the midst of cold war”. The term
“Cold War” was popularized to describe the tension and conflict in bilateral
relationship of US and the USSR in post-World War II period.
Ø Opinions
regarding Origin of Cold War: There are three
different opinions regarding origin of Cold War. They are
1. The
seeds of Cold War were sown with the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 in the Soviet
Russia.
2. The
Cold war had shown its earlier signs a little before the end of World War II.
3.
The third and most prevalent
view is that it started soon after the end of Second World War.
SUMMARY TO REMEMBER DATES
COLD WAR : 1947 TO 1990
28 July, 1914 to 11 Nov. 1918 -The
First World War.
In 1917 – Bolshevik Revolution in the
Soviet Russia
(First
View: in 1917, the seeds of cold war
were sown with Bolshevik Revolution)
(Second
View : Cold war started just before the end of II World War)
1 Sept. 1939 to 2 Sept. 1945 - The
Second World War.
(Third
and widely prevalent view: Cold war started immediately after II World War)
In
1947 – The
term Cold war was first coined by Bernard Baruch, Carolina, on 16 Apr, 1947.
In
1990 – with
the dissolution of USSR, cold war come to an end.
RISE OF ATHORITARIANISM :
(Second View: cold war began
just before the end of second world war)
ü Two
Sides in World War I
: The Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy and Triple
Entente made up of Great Britain, France and Russia;
ü After the first World War,
The Paris Peace Conference opened on January 18, 1919 with a goal of developing
a treaty that would punish Germany and meet the goals of the various Allied
Powers;
ü Accordingly, Treaty of Versailles (in 1919)
was signed by the Germany and Allied Nations (including Britain, France, Italy
and Russia) and formally stopped the World War I. The French made the Treaty
hard for the Germans so that Germany would not be able to start a new war;
ü In March 1938, Hitler invaded and annexed Austria and then
turned his attention to Czechoslovakia and demanded the Sudetenland, an area
containing three million Germans, which was refused by Czechs. But, Britain was aimed to avoid war at any
cost and called a Conference in Munich in September, 1938. In this
conference it was agreed that Germany may annex Sudetenland but no more rights
over the rest of Czechoslovakia.
ü But in Early 1939, Hitler sends his troops to occupy
Prague, the
Czech capital. Britain and France reacted to this attack. Now, Albeit also
joined the alliance against Germany, so that it can save Poland from Germany.
ü In August, 1939, Hitler signed non aggression pact
with USSR;
ü But , in September 1939, Hitler invaded Poland. Thus Britain
and France declared war on Germany and the Second World War Began.
ü The war expanded rapidly as
Hitler attacked Balkans North-Africa and West Ward. Also did surprised attack
on Soviet Russia.
ü On the other hand, Japan
attacked on the United States of Pearl harbor on 7 December, 1941.
ü Then America has decided to
save the world from the ‘evil’ authoritarianism propelled by Italy and Germany.
The then president of America Mr. Franklin decided to form a coalition with
Britain, France named – the Axis Powers.
ü The powerful alliance of United
Nations, USSR and other partners drove the Germans out.
ü In May 1945, Germany Surrendered;
ü In August 1945, Japan surrendered after
Americans had dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6th
& 9th August, respectively.
ü It is believed that the end
of Second World War created a suspicion among United States and USSR being was
allied US was supposed to inform USSR about the use of nuclear weapon. Consequently, the Japan surrendered to U.S.,
This had created a misunderstanding between two powers.
Bolshevik Revolution :
(First
View: the seeds of cold war were sown with Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 )
Bolshevik
(s) is member of a wing of the Russian Social-Democratic Worker’s Party, which,
led by Vladimir Lenin, seized control of the government of Russia (in 1917);
It
is believed that the seeds of the cold war were sown with the Bolshevik
revolution in 1917, in Soviet Russia. Because, the Western Nations
including USA, intervened in the civil war in Russia in the bud.
There
was mutual suspicion between USA and USSR, still workable relations between
them were gradually established. Also, sudden attack of Hitler on USSR, in 1941
compelled it to come to the side of the West (i.e. Alliance with USA).
The
allied victory of them (USA, USSR & other Nations) against Germany, Japan
and Italy, seemed era of co-operation between East and West. But, the
traditional suspicion and old enmity revamped and repeated in the
immediate post war period (i.e. after II WW) as predominant power of the two
super states fuelled their suspicion of each other.
Atomic Supremacy:
(Third
View: The cold war started immediately after the end of second world war)
·
According to third view, cold
war was caused by atomic diplomacy during the last year of the World War. Here,
it is said that the cold war began immediately after the end of the Second
World War. The details are as follows:
·
The Western Powers – the US,
Britain and France had combined with the Soviet Union with an aim to defeat the
common enemy (Germany, Japan). During the course of war, the US was buys
developing nuclear bomb in cooperation with Britain. Even though Russia was
their war time ally, they kept it secret from Russia. This caused the
traditional suspicion to appear again;
·
Further, it was the war
strategy of US and USSR to defeat Japan. However, before reaching Russian Army
to Japan US made nuclear attack on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in violation of above
agreed strategy with Russia. US became
it sole conqueror and administered it for some years. The Russian felt that
they were betrayed by the US.
Causes of Cold War:
The
opinions of scholars and historians in this regard is not unanimous.
The
causes for Cold War are broadly divided into two groups:
ORTHODOX
and REVISIONIST.
|
According to orthodox view Soviet Union is
surely responsible for the initiation of cold war as it forcibly
established communist regime in East European countries in post World War II
Period in violation of its agreement with the Western Allied powers. |
According to revisionists, United States that
emerged as super power among the Western nations was responsible for the Cold
War. |
|
THE
U.S.S.R. RESPONSIBILITY: Some activities of USSR annoyed the US and
Western Powers: 1.
Russians are by nature are war-mongers: The orthodox argued that
the predecessors of the Bolsheviks were also expansionist and they were able
to build a huge empire of Russia. Thus, Russians are by nature War-mongers.
This argument was strengthened by the unwillingness of the Soviets to
withdraw the Red army from eastern and Central Europe after the II WW. 2.
Russian Propaganda was anti-American. The Communist Ideology was
promising to destroy the American type of economy and political system. 3.
Russia refused
to withdraw it’s forces from Iran whereas Britain and USA withdrew
their forces from Iran; 4.
Russia was pressurizing Greece and Turkey by supporting subversive
activities of communists there. 5.
Russia
destroyed German industries and transferred costly German machines to Russia which adversely
affected already ruined German Economy. Britain and the USA had to spend huge
amount for the recovery of German Economy. |
THE U.S.A.
RESPONSIBILITY: Various actions of USA displeased the Soviet
Union: 1.
The American
military intervention in Russia in 1918-19 which was aimed at
overthrowing of Bolshevik Revolution. They were also suspicious that the US
did not recognize communist regime until 1933. 2.
During the War Soviet Union had been getting
American aid under the Lend-Lease Act but after the defeat of Germany, USA cancelled the Aid. But, it
was the most needed time to USSR for war-ravaged economy. The Western power
had also been opposing the Soviet demand of reparations. This confirmed that
the Soviet view that the West Never wanted Russia to be stronger. 3.
East European countries never have had before
democratic governments therefore, to say that Russia acted against democracy was baseless. Further, US helped the dictatorial regimes
in Spain, Pakistan, Saudi Arebia. |
IMPLICATION
OF COLD WAR:
The
opinions of scholars and historians in this regard is not unanimous.
1. Cold
War gave rise to fear psychosis which resulted in mad race for the manufacture
of more sophisticated armaments;
2. Cold
war led to the formation of various alliances during the peace times. Both
blocks formed alliances and counter alliances to counter balance the growing
power of the opponent;
3. Large
number of countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, after attainment of
independence decided to keep away from the military alliances sponsored and
supported by USA or USSR;
4. The
chances of attainment of one world had
been undermined and the two factions were found under the leadership of
USA and USSR;
5. The
two super powers were under the race to acquire sophisticated weapons and this
adversely affected the development of states and prevented improvement in the
living standards of people;
6. It
was the diplomatic and ideological war and hence both the countries were
involving in political controversies of one another;
7. Suspicion,
mistrust and hostility continued over a long period of time and affected the
relation between two superpowers;
8. It
impacted the whole world and almost all countries were involved in the tension
of coming result of the cold war;
9. Russia
Propagated Socialism whereas United States Propagated capitalism and both were
not tolerant towards each other’s ideology.
Russia encouraged the labour revolution. On the other hand, America
helped the Capitalists against the communism.
EVOLUTION OF COLD WAR:
(or
Phases of Cold War)
Cautious
Friendship and Breaking Alliance, 1945
– 46 (for the first one year)
Mutual
Hostility and Intense Conflict, 1946-1953 (for 7 years)
Apparent
Conflict, Actual Adjustment, 1953-62 (
for 9 years)
Thaw
in Cold War, 1963-68 (for 5 years)
Détente,
1969-1978 ( for 9 years)
New
Cold War, 1979-1987 (for 12
years)
The
End of Cold War, 1989-1990 .
|
Cautious Friendship
and Breaking Alliance, 1945
– 46 v At the end
of II WW, both the superpowers were at suspicion on the intensions of each
other; v America
always tried to control the Red Regime in Russia; v Without
any hesitation Russia imposed communist regimes in the East European
Countries of Poland, Bulgaria, Rumania, Hungary and Yugoslavia. v Russia
also adopted the policy of liquidating the democratic political parties and
crushing democratic institutions. v Again the
USSR violated the Balkan Agreement, regarding the joint sphere of influence
of the Soviet Union and Britain over Hungary and Yugoslavia. v After
putting the Eastern Europe behind the iron curtain , the Soviet Union
attempted at spreading it’s communist tentacles in the west Europe. v America
could not afford to be a silent spectator to the growing Soviet influence and
expansion. |
|
Mutual Hostility and
Intense Conflict, 1946
– 1953 v World War
was ended in 1945 & During 1946
Cold war took its complete shape. There was always tension of one more world
war at any time; v In 1947, the term
Cold war was first coined by Bernard Baruch, Carolina when United Nation’s
foreign policy named “Truman Doctrine” declared and said “Let us not be
deceived-today we are in the midst of cold war”. v Economically,
the West European Powers were securely rehabilitated through the generous
Marshall Aid. Anti-communist hysteria was deliberately fostered throughout
the world. v The Soviet
Russia refused to withdraw it’s troops from Iran. v In 1948, NATO
(North Atlantic Treaty Organization) is founded by Belgium, Canada, Denmark,
France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, U.K. and
USA, in order to resist communist expansion. v In 1949, The
Soviet Union tests its first atomic bomb. The test, known to Americans as Joe
1, succeeds, as the Soviet Union becomes the world’s second nuclear power.
Thereby, the atomic monopoly of
America, ended. v In 1950, Cold war
reached from Europe to Asia, also. v In 1951, Australia, New
Zealand and the United States sign the ANZUS Treaty. It compels the
three countries to cooperate on defense and security matters in the Pacific. |
|
Apparent Conflict,
Actual Adjustment, 1953
– 62 v This is an
important phase during cold war, where at the end of this phase (in 1962),
the entire world was tensed of a Nuclear War between the two factions (East
and West ). However, the adjustments made by both USA and USSR and as a
result Nuclear War was not happened. v In 1953, the
dictator of the USSR Joseph Stalin was passed and an important force
aggravating cold war was removed. Nikita Khrushchev, the new premier adopted
a policy of peaceful co-existence. v In 1955, United
States organized the South East Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO).
Like NATO it is founded to resist Communist expansion. US again expanded the Truman
Doctrine to cover the entire Middle East. Truman Doctrine is the
principle that the US should give support to countries or people threatened
by Soviet forces or Communist insurrection. v During the
same period (1955), Soviet Union also concluded the Warsaw Treaty
with East European Communist States. This is the treaty of Friendship,
Cooperation and mutual assistance which was collectively signed in Warsaw. v In 1955, under the
US instructions, the Western powers, established a fully sovereign Federal
Republic of Germany (5 May, 1955). v Missile Activity in Cuba (1962): Cuba is
the country near to USA. But USSR was providing aid to Cuba for political and
military strategies. In 1962, Soviet Union secretly build missile
installations in Cuba, which belatedly came to the knowledge of United
States. The US President, John Kennedy
declared attack on cuba. Nikita Khrushchev (USSR Leader), sent letters to
Kennedy to stop the attack on cuba and peaceful intensions of Soviet Union.
Khrushchev then announced to dismantle the installations of missile in Cub
and return it to Soviet Union. Because, United States also promised that it
would not attack on Cuba. Thus the mankind was saved from destruction of
nuclear war. |
|
Thaw in Cold War, 1963 – 68 § In 1963, The
United States agrees to set up a hotline with the USSR, thus making
direct communication possible. Also,
the Partial Test Ban Treaty was signed by the US, UK and USSR,
prohibiting the testing of nuclear weapons anywhere except underground. § In 1966, Communist
China detonates a third nuclear device; § In 1967, held
Glassboro Summit Meeting where US § USA and
USSR also negotiated The Outer
Space Treaty in 1967 and Nuclear Non-proliferation treaty in
1968. § Both the
strongest powers understood that they are in danger of devastation and if
they cannot end their differences but at least they can help make the world
safe for diversity. § A major
change in USA & USSR relations was not initiated by US President Kennedy
but this much he surely indicated that there was a shift in America’s
attitude towards its opponent. There was a peaceful co-existence between two
ideologies i.e. capitalism and socialism and co-operative behavior was
evident. However, repeatedly the
pattern of competition between two continued for advantage and influence. |
|
Detente, 1969 –1978 (Détente means easing of hostility or strained relations
between countries) v This phase
was marked by the decline of cold war and rise of détente. With the efforts
of US President, Richard Nixon and his National Security adviser, Henry A.
Kissinger relations between USA and USSR became quite normal and visits,
cultural exchanges, trade agreements and cooperative technological ventures
started. v In 1969, the
policy towards Soviet-America relations (USA & USSR relations) was
officially termed as détente. The Soviets also embraced the terms to describe
their attitude towards the United States. v Between 1969 and 1975 the USA
was facing serious economic crises due to failure in Vietnam War. The United
States entered the war to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam. Even
after peace treaty in 1973
by all parties, war continued. During this period the value of dollar was
falling and increased the situation of deteriorating balance of payment. On the other hand, Soviet Union was
also suffering from economic setbacks and trying to technologically update
itself. So during this period efforts were made by both the countries to
reduce tension. They tried to increase accommodation of common interest. v While
stabilizing relations various agreements were signed and contributed various
events by both the countries. a) SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation
Treaty) in 1972 - it is the
beginning of détente between USA and USSR; b) Conferences
held such as: in Helsinki in 1973, in Belgrade in 1977. c) During
Bangladesh Crisis the US sided with Pakistan and Russia with India; d) During
Egypt – Israel war in 1973, the USSR sided with Egypt and the USA with
Israel. But in both the super powers
avoided to militarily involving themselves in these wars. |
|
New Cold War, 1979 –1987 v Between 1975 and 1979, the
balance of power in Cold war moved steadily in favour of the Soviet
Union. The Soviets established their
influence in large parts of Africa. v American
prestige suffered during this time. The reason was – The Shah or King of
Iran, whom the Americans had regarded as safe ally was suddenly overthrown in 1979 after Islamic
Revolution. v At the
same time (in 1979),
détente has blown away when Soviet Union intervened in Afghanistan.
Unexpectedly, the military campaign has took nine years to last and foreign
reactions were sever and long-standing on this matter. v In 1979, US
President James Carter, used the hotline to warn the Soviet leaders
that unless they withdrew from Afghanistan they would jeopardize the whole
world field Soviet-American relations. v In 1980, USA
imposed a partial embargo on the export of cereals and high technology to the
Soviet Union and also refused to ratify the SALT 1980. Further, also
boycotted the Olympic Games held in Moscow (USSR) in 1980. v Also,
General Assembly of the United Nations passed a resolution condemning the
Soviet invasion. The International opinion turned strongly against the USSR. v This was
the new Cold War period between USA and USSR, again. |
|
Afghanistan Crisis, 1979 –1987 What is the need to study Afghanistan Crisis, in chapter
“Cold War”? Brief Reason: Afghanistan was aided by USSR in 1973. Later
on, Mujahideen forces gained attention from USA for their Jihad and attacked on
USSR only. Afghanistan played a massive aggressive role during cold war. See
the event details as follows: The
details from 1893 to 1988 is as
follows:. · In 1893, Britain
established an unofficial border , the Durand Line, separating
Afghanistan from British India; · In 1919, London
granted full independence to Afghanistan. Abdul
Rahman Khan (also called the Iron Amir) founded modern state of
Afghanistan; · In 1926, Emir Amanullah founded an Afghan monarchy; · During Cold
War, King Mohammed Zahir Shah developed
close ties with the Soviet Union by accepting economic assistance from USSR. · In 1973, Mohammed
Zahir was deposed by his cousin Mohammed Daoud.
Mohammed Daoud proclaimed republic; · In 1978, Daoud was
killed; Then Noor Taraki took over
Afghanistan by setting up Marxist
regime. · In 1979, Hafizullah Amin became President; · In 1979,
Hafizullah was killed and Soviet Union installed Barak Karmal as president. The Soviets and the Soviet – backed Afghan
government were met with extreme resistance. · Guerilla forces calling themselves Mujahideen
pledged a Jihad to expel invader Soviet troops. Initially, Mujahideen forces
were armed with outdated weapons. Later, it gained the attention of United
States. Began the Cold War strategy of US against USSR. · With the
help of Pakistan and USA Mujahideens got sophisticated arms to fight against
invader USSR. · In 1986, Barak
Karmal resigned and was replaced by Mohammad
Njibullah. · In 1988 the
Soviet Union, The United States, Afghanistan and Pakistan signed accords and
accordingly Soviets began withdrawing from Afghanistan. |
|
DÉTENTE II, § In 1985, Mr.
Mikhail Gorbachev became leader of the Soviet Union. He was the last General
Secretary of the Soviet Union, appointed in 1985. His domestic reforms and
nuclear disarmament deals helped end of the Cold War (but ultimately led
to the dramatic downfall of communism in Europe) § He had
summit meetings with US President Ronald Reagan and proposed a 15-year
timetable for a step-by-step process of elimination of nuclear weapons from
Earth. Beyond any one’s prediction
détente gathered momentum again due to efforts of Gorbachev. § In 1988, Reagan
and Gorbachev meet in Moscow and INF
Treaty ratified. It was an important turning point in nuclear arms
race, since it was for the first time that any nuclear weapons were
destroyed. § In 1991, USA and
USSR signed Treaty of Strategic Arms Reduction (START) on the
reduction and limitation of strategic offensive arms. They also agreed on
complex certification procedure, including on-site inspection, short notice
inspections and suspect site inspection. § Thus,
gradually the traditional tension between Soviet Union and United States gave
away to co-operation and ideological and social differences between the two
countries tended to disappear. |
|
The End of Cold War, 1989
- 90 Ø President’s Help to end the cold war: Three
different presidents in three different years take significant steps towards
ending the Cold War and held four important summits to establish peace and
harmony between the countries.. Actions
taken by Gorbachev during the period of economic slow down in USSR (these
actions helped for détente): The agenda
of economic reform called PERESTROIKA or restricting which was announced by
Gorbachev relaxed the production quota system, allowed private ownership of
business and paved the way for foreign investment. Simultaneously
Gorbachev also introduced GLASNOST or openness, which increased freedom of
the press and the transparency of state institutions. It also enabled
increased contact between Soviet citizens and the western world, particularly
with the United states, contributing to the accelerating Détente between the
two nations. SUMMITS: Ø Firstly in
November 1985 in Geneva,
Switzerland. US President Reagan and USSR Leader Gorbachev met for
the first time in this summit. Result:
Both USA and USSR agreed to reduce each country’s nuclear weapons. Ø Secondly
in October 1986, Reykjavik Summit
was held in Iceland. This summit failed due to opinion differences between
Reagan and Gorbachev. Ø Thirdly in
December, 1987, Intermediate-Range
Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF Treaty) was signed in Washington by Reagan
and Gorbachev. This treaty eliminated all nuclear-armed, ground-launched
ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500 kilometers
and their infrastructure. Ø The fourth
and Final summit was held in 1989
in Moscow, where US President George Bush and USSR Leader Gorbachev
signed START arms control treaty.
Ø In December, 1989 at the
end of Malta Summit, Gorbachev and Bush declared that a long-lasting era of
peace has begun. This was the official
end of the Cold War. Ø In late
1991 the Soviet Union itself dissolved into its component republics. |
RUSSIA
USSR:
Ø Union of Soviet Socialist Republics – was a
socialist state existed from 1922 to 1991;
Ø It
was a one-party state which was governed by the Communist Party with Moscow as
its capital in its largest republic;
Ø By
the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the world’s second largest economy,
largest standing military in the world and the largest stockpile of weapons of
mass destruction.
Ø Russia
(Russian Federation) became an independent country after the dissolution of the
Soviet Union in December, 1991.
RUSSIA:
v Russia,
formally the Russian Federation was the
largest of the fifteen republics that made up the Soviet Union.
v It
has been facing serious challenges to establish a viable political system. The
situation in Russia, in the Post-USSR phase was always to be extremely
challenging. With over seventy years of Communist experience, cold war etc the
state failed to establish any democratic regime. During the courses of its thousand year
history, Russia has repeatedly experienced collapses but has emerged as a
strong power from each crisis.
v The
Russian Federation of 1991 is still the biggest country in the world in terms of
geographical area.
THE EUROPEAN UNION (EU)
USSR:
v European
Union is a union of
28 member countries which share political and economic relations (but
originally, EU was made by the regional economic agreement among six
neighboring states in 1951).
v Its main purpose
are to promote greater social, political and economic harmony among the nations
of Western Europe. One of the EU’s main goals is to promote human rights both
internally and around the world. Also to be more competitive in the world’s
market place.
v The overall function of European Union is to create and implement
uniform laws and regulations that integrate the member states of the EU.
v The
Euro is the common currency
for the EU area. It is the second most
commonly held currency in the world, after the US dollar. (Euro was launched in
1999)
v The
European Central Bank is the
EU’s Central Bank. It sets monetary
policy and manages bank lending rates and foreign exchange reserves.
v In
1957,
the Treaty of Rome created the European Economic Community (EEC)
and the six member states undertook to eliminate trade barriers among
themselves by forming a common market.
v In
1967,
the institutions of all three treaties were formally merged into the European Community (EC),
creating a single European Commission, a Single Council of Ministers, and the
European Parliament. ( European Commission and European Parliament are the
governing bodies of EU).
